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Explore our timeline of human evolutionIntroduction: Human Evolution
by
John PickrellSeptember 2006
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Human Evolution Topic Guide
Darwin's
The Origin of Species, published in 1859, suggested that humans were descended from African apes. However, no fossils of our ancestors were discovered in Africa until 1924, when
Raymond Dart dug up the "
Taung child" - a 3-million to 4 million-year-old Australopithecine.
Over the last century, many spectacular discoveries have shed light on the history of the human family. Somewhere between 12 and 19 different species of early humans are recognised, though palaeoanthropologists bitterly dispute
how they are related. Famous fossils include the remarkably complete "Lucy", dug up in Ethiopia in 1974, and the astonishing "hobbit" species,
Homo floresiensis, found on an Indonesian island in 2004.
Walking tall
At around
6 million years ago, the first apes to walk on
two legs appear in the fossil records. Despite the fact that many of these
Australopithecinesand other early humans were no bigger than chimps and had similar-sized brains, the shift to bipedalism was highly significant. Aside from our large brain, bipedalism is perhaps the most important difference between humans and apes, as it freed our hands to use tools.
One famous member of the species
Australopithecus afarensis is the remarkably complete fossil found by palaeaoanthropologist Donald Johanson in Hadar, Ethiopia in 1974. The 3.2-million-year-old fossil was named
Lucy, after the Beatles' song
Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.
She stood around 1.1 metres (3.5 feet) tall and although she
walked on two legs, she probably had a less graceful gait than us, since she walked with them bent.
Tooled up
Australopithecines are thought to be the ancestors of Homo, the group to which our own species, Homo sapiens, belongs.
However, Australopithecines may also have given rise to another branch of hominid evolution - the vegetarian
Paranthropus species. Around 2.7 million years ago, species such as
Paranthropus bosei in east Africa evolved to take advantage of the dry grasslands. This included the development of enormous jaws and chewing muscles for grinding up tough roots and tubers.
By 2.4 million years ago, Homo habilis had appeared - the first recognisably human-like hominid to appear in the fossil record - which lived alongside P. bosei. Their bodies were around two-thirds the size of ours, but their brains were significantly larger than Australopithecines with a volume of about 600 cubic centimetres.
H. habilis had much smaller teeth and jaws than
Paranthropus and was probably the first human to
eat large quantities of meat. This meaty diet, acquired through scavenging, may have provided energy required to kick-start an increasing brain size. A mutation that
weakened jaw muscles and gave our brains more space to grow may also lie behind the big brains we have today.
H. habilis - which means "handy man" - was also the first early human to habitually create tools and use them to break bones and extract marrow. This tool-making tradition, known as
Oldowan, lasted virtually unchanged for a million years. Oldowan tools were made by breaking an angular rock with a "hammerstone" to give simple, sharp-edged stone flakes for chopping and slicing.
Modern lookers
At around 1.65 million years ago, another early human,
Homo ergaster, started to create tools in a slightly different fashion. This so-called
Acheulean tradition was the
tool-making technology used for nearly the entire Stone Age, and practiced until 100,000 years ago. Acheulean tools, such as
hand axes and cleavers, were larger and more sophisticated than their predecessors'. They may have been
status symbols as well as tools.
Homo ergaster first appeared in Africa around 2 million years ago, and in many ways resembled us. Though they had brow ridges, they had lost the stoop and long arms of their ancestors. They may have been even more slender than us and were probably
well-adapted to running long distances. Some experts believe that they were the first to sport
largely hairless bodies, and to sweat, though another theory puts our hairlessness down to
an aquatic phase.
One famous example of a more modern looking early human is the
Turkana boy, a teenager when he died, 1.6 million years ago in Kenya. The shape of this fossil showed that the human pelvis had reached today's narrow proportions. Combined with the growing size of the human head and brain, this had far-reaching implications: human women now
need help for a successful birth; and human babies are born earlier, and need a
longer period of childhood care, than those of apes.
Meat-eating, however, may have allowed us to become
early weaners.
H.ergaster may have been the first early human to leave Africa. Bones dated to around 1.75 million years ago have been found in
Dmanisi in Georgia.
Shortly afterwards,
Homo erectus appeared - the first early human whose fossils have been seen in large numbers outside of Africa. The first specimen discovered, a single cranium, was unearthed in Indonesia in 1891.
H.erectus was highly successful, spreading to
much of Asiabetween 1.8 and 1.5 million years ago, and surviving as
recently as 27,000 years ago.
First Europeans
Early human fossil evidence from Spain, dating to around
780,000 years ago, points to the first known Europeans. Stone tools have also been found in England from around
700,000 years ago, attributed to
Homo antecessor or
Homo heidelbergensis.
More recently, 325,000-year-old
H. heidelbergensis tracks were discovered
preserved on an Italian volcano. Some of the biggest collections of hominid remains ever found are from
Boxgrove in England and
Atapuerca in Spain. Experts believe that these humans may have had ears equipped to detect
nuances of human speech, whether or not they had simple language.
Some palaeoanthropologists believe that
H. heidelbergensis evolved into our own species in Africa, whilst in Europe, the Neanderthals
emerged as a separate species.
Out of Africa
Most widely accepted is the "Out of Africa" hypothesis. This holds that ancient humans evolved exclusively in Africa, then spread across the world in two
migration waves. The migration of
H. erectus across Eurasia made up the first wave. Later, our own species evolved in Africa and fanned out in a second wave 200,000 years ago. These new people totally replaced
H. erectus in Asia and the Neanderthals in Europe.
Advocates of the
multiregional hypothesis instead believe that early humans started to leave Africa around 2 million years ago, and were never totally replaced by recent migrants. They believe these far-flung hominids
exchanged genes and interbred, slowly evolving into modern humans - in many places, simultaneously. Through gene flow,
modern characteristicssuch as large brains gradually spread, it is suggested. Some fossils seem to support the multiregional hypothesis.
H. erectus skulls in Asia, for example, have similarly flat cheek and nasal regions as people there today do.
Most -
but not all - genetic evidence appears to back the Out of Africa hypothesis. There is surprisingly
little variation in the mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) of different people today, which suggest that humans evolved recently from a
small ancestral population. In addition, the variation of mDNA in Africans is greater than elsewhere, suggesting that people have been evolving there for longer.
Cultural revolution
The earliest anatomically modern humans are though to have arrived around
200,000 years ago. These fossils show a rounded braincase and flatter face. Their brains had reached modern proportions of about 1350 cm
3.
Two skulls found in Ethiopia make up the oldest modern human remains known, at 195,000 years old.
Throughout history, tool use appears to have progressed slowly - once innovations were made, they lasted millions of years barely altering. But around 50,000 years ago something changed, and
culture started to develop at a
much more rapid rate.
Libreville, Gabon, est située près de l'équateur : l'heure du lever de soleil croît et décroît deux fois par an, mais les variations ne dépassent pas une demi-heure.
Narvik, Norvège, au-delà du cercle polaire arctique : le Soleil reste au-dessus de l'horizon de fin mai à mi-juillet et ne se lève plus de début décembre à début janvier.
La Guerra Civil Española : Episodio 5 